Triangular V-notch weirs are a fundamental tool in hydraulic engineering, providing a cost-effective and reliable method for measuring flow in open channels. Accurate flow measurement is essential for managing water resources, monitoring the environment, and…
An orifice meter is a flow measuring device that is very popular among other flow measuring instruments due to its design simplicity, cost efficiency and easy manufacturability to determine the discharge in single and multi-phase…
If you have observed cigarette smoke, you may have noticed that it initially rises as a smooth, steady plume before beginning to fluctuate erratically as it moves upward. Similar behavior occurs with other plumes. This…
The general conservation of mass equations can be further simplified for incompressible flows, a condition typically applicable to liquids. Since density (ρρ) is constant, it can be canceled from both sides of the general steady-flow relation,…
The fundamental conservation laws—such as the conservation of mass and the first law of thermodynamics—are formulated for a fixed-identity collection of matter, known as a closed system in thermodynamics. However, analyzing a control volume (or open system) is often…
A system that is not undergoing any change possesses a unique condition defined by its measurable properties, such as temperature, pressure, and volume. This specific condition is known as the state of the system. A complete set…
All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. Therefore, developing a good understanding of basic…
Density is defined as mass per unit volume (Fig. 2–3). That is,Density: (2–1) The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volumeper unit mass. That is, v ! V/m !…
What Is a Fluid? You will recall from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance in the liquid…
